Editing Test:SRCCL/Chapter-1 (section)

== 1.2.1.4 Food security, food systems and linkages to land-based ecosystems ==

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The High Level Panel of Experts of the Committee on Food Security define the food system as to “gather all the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the output of these activities, including socio-economic and environmental outcomes” (HLPE 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r334|334]]</sup> ). Likewise, food security has been defined as “a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r335|335]]</sup> ). By this definition, food security is characterised by food availability, economic and physical access to food, food utilisation and food stability over time. Food and nutrition security is one of the key outcomes of the food system (FAO 2018b <sup>[[#fn:r336|336]]</sup> ; Figure 1.4).

After a prolonged decline, world hunger appears to be on the rise again, with the number of undernourished people having increased to an estimated 821 million in 2017, up from 804 million in 2016 and 784 million in 2015, although still below the 900 million reported in 2000 (FAO et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r337|337]]</sup> ) (Section 5.1.2). Of the total undernourished in 2018, for example, 256.5 million lived in Africa, and 515.1 million in Asia (excluding Japan). The same FAO report also states that child undernourishment continues to decline, but levels of overweight populations and obesity are increasing. The total number of overweight children in 2017 was 38–40 million worldwide, and globally up to around two billion adults are by now overweight (Section 5.1.2). FAO also estimated that close to 2000 million people suffer from micronutrient malnutrition (FAO 2018b <sup>[[#fn:r338|338]]</sup> ).

Food insecurity most notably occurs in situations of conflict, and conflict combined with droughts or floods (Cafiero et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r339|339]]</sup> ; Smith et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r340|340]]</sup> ). The close parallel between food insecurity prevalence and poverty means that tackling development priorities would enhance sustainable land use options for climate mitigation.

Climate change affects the food system as changes in trends and variability in rainfall and temperature variability impact crop and livestock productivity and total production (Osborne and Wheeler 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r341|341]]</sup> ; Tigchelaar et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r342|342]]</sup> ; Iizumi and Ramankutty 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r343|343]]</sup> ), the nutritional quality of food (Loladze 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r344|344]]</sup> ; Myers et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r345|345]]</sup> ; Ziska et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r346|346]]</sup> ; Medek et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r347|347]]</sup> ), water supply (Nkhonjera 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r348|348]]</sup> ), and incidence of pests and diseases (Curtis et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r349|349]]</sup> ). These factors also impact on human health, increasing morbidity and affecting human ability to process ingested food (Franchini and Mannucci 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r350|350]]</sup> ; Wu et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r351|351]]</sup> ; Raiten and Aimone 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r352|352]]</sup> ). At the same time, the food system generates negative externalities (the environmental effects of production and consumption) in the form of GHG emissions

(Sections 1.1.2 and 2.3), pollution (van Noordwijk and Brussaard 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r353|353]]</sup> ; Thyberg and Tonjes 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r354|354]]</sup> ; Borsato et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r355|355]]</sup> ; Kibler et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r356|356]]</sup> ), water quality (Malone et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r357|357]]</sup> ; Norse and Ju 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r358|358]]</sup> ), and ecosystem services loss (Schipper et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r359|359]]</sup> ; Eeraerts et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r360|360]]</sup> ) with direct and indirect impacts on climate change and reduced resilience to climate variability. As food systems are assessed in relation to their contribution to global warming and/or to land degradation (e.g., livestock systems) it is critical to evaluate their contribution to food security and livelihoods and to consider alternatives, especially for developing countries where food insecurity is prevalent (Röös et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r361|361]]</sup> ; Salmon et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r362|362]]</sup> ).

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====== Figure 1.4 ======

<span id="food-system-and-its-relations-to-land-and-climatethe-food-system-is-conceptualised-through-supply-production-processing-marketing-and-retailing-and-demand-consumption-and-diets-that-are-shaped-by-physical-economic-social-and-cultural-determinants-influencing-choices-access-utilisation-quality-safety-and-waste.-food-system-drivers-ecosystem-services-economics-and-technology-social-and-cultural-norms"></span>
==== Food system (and its relations to land and climate):The food system is conceptualised through supply (production, processing, marketing and retailing) and demand (consumption and diets) that are shaped by physical, economic, social and cultural determinants influencing choices, access, utilisation, quality, safety and waste. Food system drivers (ecosystem services, economics and technology, social and cultural norms […] ====

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Food system (and its relations to land and climate):The food system is conceptualised through supply (production, processing, marketing and retailing) and demand (consumption and diets) that are shaped by physical, economic, social and cultural determinants influencing choices, access, utilisation, quality, safety and waste. Food system drivers (ecosystem services, economics and technology, social and cultural norms and traditions, and demographics) combine with the enabling conditions (policies, institutions and governance) to affect food system outcomes including food security, nutrition and health, livelihoods, economic and cultural benefits as well as environmental outcomes or side-effects (nutrient and soil loss, water use and quality, GHG emissions and other pollutants). Climate and climate change have direct impacts on the food system (productivity, variability, nutritional quality) while the latter contributes to local climate (albedo, evapotranspiration) and global warming (GHGs). The land system (function, structures, and processes) affects the food system directly (food production) and indirectly (ecosystem services) while food demand and supply processes affect land (land-use change) and land-related processes (e.g., land degradation, desertification) (Chapter 5).

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